Carpenter bees (Apidae: Xylocopa) of Ecuador: distribution, DNA barcodes and plant interactions

Knowledge of the diversity and ecology of carpenter bees (Xylocopa) in Ecuador remains limited and scattered. Here, we present the first updated assessment of Xylocopa across Ecuador, including continental Ecuador and the Galápagos Archipelago, based on the examination of 1,351 specimens from museum collections, published records and citizen science observations. Twenty-two DNA (COI) barcodes were generated for ten species to support accurate identification. In total, 16 Xylocopa species were recorded, including three newly reported species for the country: X. ornata, X. metallica, and X. nigrocincta. Six morphotypes could not be confidently assigned to any described species, suggesting the presence of undescribed or cryptic taxa. An identification key to the subgenera and species of Xylocopa in Ecuador is also provided. Flower-visitation data was recorded for seven bee species across 60 plant taxa belonging to 26 families. By combining traditional data sources with citizen science observations, this study provides essential baseline information on the diversity, distribution, and ecological interactions of Xylocopa in Ecuador. Observed intraspecific phenotypic variation highlights the need for continued morphological and molecular research.